Who could be terrifying enough to strike fear into the hearts of Crusaders, Mamluks, Arabs, Turks and Mongols? Who do you think all these mighty warriors were afraid of? Who were those figures that operated from the shadows and threatened soldiers, lords, Kings, Emperors Khans and Sultans alike? Who was the “Old man of the Mountain”?
I am pretty sure you have read legendary stories of the Crusades; the Byzantine Imperial might, the Crusaders’ unbreakable spirit, the Muslim zeal to defend their faith. But this is not just another story about the Crusades, but rather about shadows and Fear. Emerging from the rugged mountains of Persia in the late 11th century, a secretive sect of was born and grew to become the Nizari Ismailis, or more ominously, the Assassins’ Order.
Masters of stealth and deception, their name became synonymous with silent, deadly precision, leaving a trail of bewildered and fallen foes. Shrouded in mystery and myth, the Assassins' legacy endures, a testament to their unmatched prowess in the art of the unseen strike and their unwavering dedication to their cause.
Follow me down this thread, through the sands of time and shadowy recesses of history, where legends intertwine with reality; where this clandestine brotherhood existed and struck fear into the hearts of kings and sultans alike.
The origins of the Assassin order are almost lost in time and mystery; it was most probably born in Persia by Ismaili missionaries, a branch of Shia Islam that diverged from mainstream dogma. They were probably caught up in the middle of Seljuk-Turkish invasions from the far-East, beyond the Oxus River; the savages from the Steppes were new-recruits of Islam and not very keen on engaging in dogmatic discussions or accepting defiance.
Therefore, that group of persecuted people sought refuge in the steep mountains of Persia, south of the Caspian Sea; they managed to capture the legendary Alamut Fortress, which would fatefully become the seat of their power. Their leader was Hasan-i Sabbah, of Alamut, also ended up known as the first “Old Man of the Mountain”. An ominous title, signifying death upon spoken.
This fortress had been built about the year 865; legend has it that it was built by a king who saw his eagle fly up to and perch upon a rock, a propitious omen, the importance of which that king understood. Likening the perching of the eagle to a lesson given by it, he called the fort Aluh Amu(kh)t: the "Eagles' Teaching".
Hasan's takeover of the fort was conducted without any significant bloodshed. To affect this transition, Hasan employed a patient and deliberate strategy, one which took the better part of two years to effect. First Hasan sent his acolytes to win over the villages in the valley, and their inhabitants. Next, key people amongst this populace were converted, and finally, in 1090, Hasan took over the fort by infiltrating it with his converts.
Our man was highly educated and was known for austerity, studying, translating, praying, fasting, and directing the activities of the Order; the propagation of the Nizarī/Ismaili doctrine was headquartered at Alamut. He knew the Qur'ān by heart, could quote extensively from the texts of most Muslim sects, and apart from philosophy, was well versed in mathematics, astronomy, alchemy, medicine, architecture, and the major scientific disciplines of his time. Sounds like a serious G; a dangerous man employed with a sharp mind.
In a major departure from tradition, Hasan declared Persian to be the language of holy literature for Nizaris, instead of Arabic, a decision that resulted in all the Nizari Ismā'īlī literature from Persia, Syria, Afghanistan and Central Asia to be transcribed in Persian for several centuries.
Their original doctrine developed during the struggle for succession of Nizar to the Fatimid throne in Cairo that eventually laid the foundation of the Nizari Isma'ilism Shia Islam. Since then, as a basic element of conservative nature, the Ismaili Imamate includes a “hidden imam”, in addition to the visible (or hazar, meaning apparent) imam of the time, acting as such in a community.
An important task of the latter is the proliferation of the doctrine, and of the undisclosed imam's spiritual guidance, in learning centers having instructors proficient in teaching techniques. Devotion of the "true believers" having "absolute faith" in the beliefs is another element originating from the times of Sabbah in Northern Iran, who reportedly "was so devout that he even had one of his sons executed after he was accused of drunkenness. A Nizari assassin is identified as fida'i or devotee, "who offers his life for others or in the service of a particular cause."
The Alamut and Lambsar castles became the foundation of a network of Isma'ili fortresses throughout Persia and later Syria that formed the backbone of Assassin power. The Western world was introduced to the Assassins by the works of Marco Polo who understood the name as deriving from the word hashish and their heavy usage of hallucinogenic substances.
Hasan, the founder of Nizari Isma'ilis in Persia, was designated by Marco Polo using a Syrian equivalent term known in Europe at that time, as Elder or Old Man of the Mountain. Polo's travelogue describes Hasan as a charlatan who devised plots to convert young men to his sect. At the court of the Old Man of the Mountain "they were educated in various languages and customs, courtly etiquette, and trained in martial and other skills". At Alamut they had "impressive libraries whose collections included books on various religious traditions, philosophical and scientific texts, and scientific equipment".
The usage of drugs like opium and hashish along with theatrics was strategically employed, especially during the recruitment and indoctrination stages. Marco Polo, provides interesting accounts; after administering hallucinogenic substances to young recruits for days, they used to move them unconscious to heavenly gardens within the fortresses; upon awakening from the state of stupor, their senses were struck with all the delightful objects and experiences that have been described as “Paradise”, during indoctrination courses.
Each saw himself surrounded by lovely women, singing, playing, and captivating him with the most delightful caresses, serving him also with delicate foods and exquisite wines until, intoxicated with excess of enjoyment amid rivulets of milk and wine, he believed himself assuredly in paradise, and unwilling to relinquish its delights. When four or five days had thus been passed, they were thrown once more into a drugged state and carried out of the garden.
Upon their being brought into the presence of the Old Man and questioned by him as to where they had been, their answer was, ”In paradise, through the favor of your highness”; and then before the whole court, who listened with curiosity and astonishment, they gave a circumstantial account of the scenes they had witnessed. The chief thereupon addressing them, said: “we have the assurances of our prophet that he who defends his lord shall inherit Paradise, and if you show yourselves devoted to obeying my orders, that happy lot awaits you.”
Aroused to enthusiasm by words of this nature, all deemed themselves happy to receive the commands of their master and were ready to die in his service. The consequence of this system was that when any of the neighboring princes, or others, offended this chief, they were put to death by these his brainwashed, devoted assassins, none of whom felt terror at the risk of losing their own lives, which they held in little esteem, provided they could execute their master’s will. On this account his tyranny became a matter of dread in all the surrounding countries.
On a strategic level, the hostilities and animosity against the Seljuks naturally continued with several attempts from the Turks to quell the sect failing miserably; many Seljuks warlords were often bribed, assassinated or converted, something that facilitated the Order’s expansion towards the West. They continued sieging and overtaking strongholds all the way to Syria, often managing to convert the local populace as well, establishing a state-like dominion.
No interactions between the Christian forces of the First Crusade and the Assassins have been noted, with the latter concentrating on the Muslim enemies of the former. Other than a mention of Tancred's 1106 taking of Apamea in Gesta Tancredi, Western Europe likely first learned of the Assassins from the chronicles of William of Tyre, A History of Deeds Done Beyond the Sea, published much later.
In the early 12th century, the Assassins, led by Hassan-i Sabbah, sent al-Hakim al-Munajjim to establish a cell in Aleppo and expand in Syria. Al-Hakim allied with Ridwan, emir of Aleppo, orchestrating the 1103 assassination of Janah ad-Dawla, a rival emir. Even though they managed to terminate a major opponent, many more followed and took up arms against them; even better for them, as they were creating a reputation.
Despite facing an eight-year siege, the Assassins remained untouchable in their strongholds. Their deadly influence spread, with major kills like Mawdud of Mosul in 1113 and subsequent attacks on other leaders. Although expelled from Aleppo in 1113, they sought revenge, killing Sāʿid ibn Badī in 1119. The Assassins' most audacious move came when they planted a dagger by Sultan Sanjar's bed, forcing a ceasefire. Despite fluctuating fortunes, including being expelled from Aleppo in 1124, their reputation for ruthless precision ensured their legacy as formidable agents of shadowy power.
In 1124, Hassan-i Sabbah's death left a powerful legacy, succeeded by Kiya Buzurg Ummid at Alamut. The Seljuks, sensing weakness, launched attacks in 1126 but faced mixed results. Despite some minor victories, their efforts were ultimately inconclusive, with the Assassins even managing to assassinate Seljuk vizier Mu'in ad-Din Kashi in 1127. In Syria, Bahram al-Da'i continued the Assassins' operations, including targeting Crusaders and local leaders, until his own death in 1127.
During these years, they expanded their hitlists as well as their strongholds in Syria, acquiring key castles like Masyaf. Although their activities waned until the Second Crusade, they remained a formidable presence, striking notable figures such as Raymond II of Tripoli in 1152, the first known Christian victim.
After many internal dogmatic struggles, the Order of the Assasins was reborn under the leadership of Rashid ad-Din Sinan, referred to as Sinān, while the Seljuk power was also declining in the region. An alchemist and schoolmaster, he was dispatched to Syria by Hassan II as a messenger of his Islamic views and to continue the Assassins' mission.
Known as the greatest of the Assassin chiefs, Sinān first made headquarters at al-Kahf Castle and then the fortress of Masyaf, while he consolidated power in the region. Top G; you will understand soon why.
One of the first orders of business that Sinān confronted was the continuing threat from Nur ad-Din as well as the Knights Templar's presence at Tartus. In 1173, Sinān proposed to Amalric of Jerusalem an alliance against Nur ad-Din in exchange for cancellation of the tribute imposed upon Assassin villages near Tartus. The Assassin envoys to the king were ambushed and slain by a Templar knight named Walter du Mesnil near Tripoli while returning from the negotiations, an act apparently sanctioned by the Templar Grand Master Odo de Saint Amand.
Amalric demanded the knight be surrendered, but Odo refused, claiming only the pope had the authority to punish du Mesnil. Amalric had du Mesnil kidnapped and imprisoned at Tyre. Sinān accepted the king's apology, assured that justice had been done. The point of the alliance became moot as both Nur ad-Din and Amalric died of natural causes soon thereafter.
These developments could not have been better for Saladin who wished to expand beyond Egypt into Jerusalem and Syria, first taking Damascus. With the Kingdom of Jerusalem being led by the 13-year-old leprous Baldwin IV and Syria by the 11-year-old as-Salih Ismail al-Malik, son of Nur ad-Din, he continued his campaign in Syria, moving against Aleppo. While besieging Aleppo in late 1174 or early 1175, the camp of Saladin was infiltrated by Assassins sent by Sinān; they had already managed to wound him in another attempt.
According to one version, one night, Saladin's guards noticed a spark glowing down the hill of Masyaf and then vanishing among the Ayyubid tents. Saladin awoke from his sleep to find a figure leaving the tent. He saw that the lamps in his tent were displaced and beside his bed laid hot scones of the shape peculiar to the Assassins with a note at the top pinned by a poisoned dagger. The note threatened that he would be killed if he did not withdraw from his siege. Realizing he was unable to subdue the Assassins, he sought to align himself with them, consequently depriving the Crusaders of aligning themselves against him.
In 1190, Isabella I was Queen of Jerusalem and the Third Crusade had just begun. The daughter of Amalric, she married her first husband Conrad of Montferrat, who became king by virtue of marriage, not yet crowned. Conrad was of royal blood, the cousin of Holy Roman Emperor Frederick Barbarossa and Louis VII of France. Conrad had been in charge of Tyre, during its siege in 1187 launched by Saladin, successfully defending the city. He was not aligned with the interests of Richard the Lionheart, who supported Guy de Lusignan.
Guy of Lusignan, married to Isabella's half-sister Sybilla of Jerusalem, was king of Jerusalem by right of marriage; he had been captured by Saladin during the battle of Hattin in that same year, 1187. When Guy was released in 1188, he was denied entry to Tyre by Conrad and launched the siege of Acre in 1189. Queen Sybilla died of an epidemic sweeping her husband's military camp in 1190, negating Guy's claim to the throne and resulting in Isabella becoming queen.
Assassins disguised as Christian monks had infiltrated the bishopric of Tyre, gaining the confidence of both the archbishop Joscius and Conrad of Montferrat. There in 1192, they stabbed Conrad to death. The surviving Assassin is reputed to have named Richard I of England as the instigator, who had much to gain as demonstrated by the rapidity at which the widow married Henry II of Champagne.
That account is disputed by ibn al-Athir who names Saladin in a plot with Sinān to kill both Conrad and Richard. Richard I was captured by Leopold V, Duke of Austria, and held by Henry VI, who had become Holy Roman Emperor in 1191, accused of murder. Sinān wrote to Leopold V absolving Richard I of complicity in the plot. Regardless, Richard I was released in 1194 after England paid his ransom and the murder remains unsolved.
In 1213, Assassins murdered Raymond, son of Bohemond IV of Tripoli, inciting a siege against the Isma'ili stronghold Qala'at al-Khawabi. Despite fierce conflicts, including an Ayyubid intervention, the Franks lifted the siege by 1216. In 1225, Frederick II sought safe passage from the Assassins for his crusade. Yet, Majd ad-Din diverted Frederick's gifts and notified local powers of his mission. Conflict ensued over tributes with the Hospitallers, leading to attacks and looting.
By 1239, the Assassins deeply influenced Syrian politics, aiding fugitives and engaging in high-stakes diplomacy. Louis IX's Seventh Crusade in 1249 further highlighted Assassin interactions with European royalty, demanding tributes and asserting their power. It is said that the Old Man’s envoys threatened defiantly the king: “In his clenched fist he held three knives, with blades that each fitted into the handle of another, these, if the emir’s proposals were rejected, he was to present to the king in token of defiance. Behind this young man was another, who had a stout roll of linen would round his arm, which he was to present to the king as a winding-sheet for his burial if he refused the Old Man of the Mountain’s demands.”
Our dudes had proven they meant serious business and that they were real Gangsters; but you know what they say: everybody’s gangsta until the Mongols arrive. The Assassins suffered a significant blow at the hands of the Mongol Empire during the well-documented invasion of Khwarazm. A decree was handed over to the Mongol commander Kitbuqa who began to assault several Assassin fortresses in 1253 before Hulagu's advance in 1256. You see, even if the assassins tried assassinating the Mongol commanders, it was very hard even to attempt it; Mongols lived secluded and their allegiance could not be bought.
During the siege of Maymun-Diz, the last Ismaili Imam capitulated to the Mongols. The Imam ordered his subordinates to surrender and demolish their fortresses likewise. The subsequent capitulation of the symbolic stronghold of Alamut marked the end of the Nizari state in Persia. Lambsar fell in 1257, Masyaf in 1267. The Assassins recaptured and held Alamut for a few months in 1275, but they were crushed and their political power was lost forever, even though several of their strongholds held out for years.
During the siege of Tripoli, two Assassins were sent by Bohemond VI to kill Baibars but failed. Isma'ili leaders eventually surrendered their castles and lived at Baibars' court. Baibars seized key Assassin fortresses, and by 1271, he controlled all their strongholds. The Assassins, under Baibars, countered forces arriving in the Ninth Crusade, including an unsuccessful attack on future king Edward I of England; it is said that Edward caught his own assassin and killed him with his bare hands.
The last notable victim of the Assassins was Philip of Montfort in 1270, murdered by Baibars' orders. By 1273, all Assassin strongholds were under Mamluk control. The Mamluks continued using Assassins for targeted killings, with payments for successful murders. However, Assassin activity diminished, and they settled near Salamiyah, with a significant Isma'ili population today recognizing the Aga Khan as their Imam.
As the sands of time drifted through the hourglass of history, the legacy of the Assassins transformed into whispers carried by the wind. Their fortresses, once impregnable bastions of power, stood as solemn sentinels, echoes of a time when shadows ruled the night and daggers shaped destinies.
The world moved on, empires rose and fell, but the memory of the Assassins lingered like a spectral mist, intertwining with the fabric of myth and legend. They were the unseen hands, the silent watchers in the dark, their influence seeping into the annals of history, forever altering the course of events from the hidden recesses of their mountainous retreats.
And so, the story of the Assassins, wrapped in enigma and shadow, drifted into the realm of the unknown. They became phantoms of a bygone era, guardians of secrets lost to the ages, their true nature obscured by the veils of history. The world may never fully unravel their mysteries, but their legend remains—an eternal whisper in the corridors of time, a reminder that in the darkest shadows, light and truth can sometimes be found.